Botox - How to Remove Wrinkles With Botox

Cosmetic Surgery Gone Wrong

Is Botox safe?

Cosmetic Surgery Gone Wrong

Yes when FDA approved Botulinum Toxin A made by Allergan is used according to approved dosage by experienced licensed physicians, in my opinion.

Cosmetic Surgery Gone Wrong

What Is Botox?

Cosmetic Surgery Gone Wrong

Botox is an injectable medication that relaxes facial muscles that cause lines or wrinkles. Technically called Botulinum Toxin A, this medication is synthesized in the laboratory by Allergan, a major pharmaceutical company.

Contrary to stories in the media Botulinum Toxin A is not food poisoning bacteria and you cannot get food poisoning from a Botox injection. Botulinum Toxin A was discovered as a toxin created by the Clostridium Botulinum bacterium which is a cause of food poisoning which caused muscle weakness.

The synthesized, medical grade Botulinum Toxin A used today has been safely used in medical practice for 30 years and is FDA approved. Its first use was in children with spastic legs-the spasms were relaxed by this medication. It has also been used in Toticollis-painful spasms of the neck, and in Oculogyric spasms-tics or involuntary movements or twitches of the eyes.

How Does Botox Work on Wrinkles?

The wrinkles caused by the pull of your muscles of facial expression are called "dynamic lines" because they are dynamic or move. That is these wrinkles and lines are caused by repeated motion of muscles of facial expression-each time the muscle moves it pulls the skin into a wrinkle. After years of repeated motion, these wrinkles or lines become permanent.

Botox relaxes or quiets the muscles of facial expression. When the muscle is relaxed, the line or wrinkle caused by the muscle disappears.

Which Wrinkles Are Removed with Botox?

The lines of facial expression which are:

o Crow's Feet-lines on the cheek around the eyes
o Frown Lines-the deep creases between your eyes at the base of your nose
o Worry Lines-the creases running across your forehead
o Bunny lines-the wrinkles at the base of your nose that wrinkle when you smile hard
o Lip Lines-the wrinkles around your mouth when you purse your lips
o Marionette Lines-the lines running from the corner of your mouth down to the jaw lie that pull the mouth down when you are angry or sad

How is Botox Given?

Tiny amounts of Botulinum Toxin A are injected directly into the muscle that is causing the wrinkle or dynamic line. These injections are dosed in International Units (IU). Very small amounts of the solution are used.

Generally a treatment of 25 IUs is used to treat the crow's feet and frown lines-5-6 IU in each side of the crow's feet and 13-15 IUs in the frown lines. If the worry lines are also treated and additional 6.25 IU is placed into each side of the forehead for an additional 12.5 IUs.

Very small amounts are used around the mouth to avoid any interference with mouth function. Generally only 1 or 2 IUs are used on the upper lip for lip wrinkles-after treatment you may not be able to whistle or drink through a straw-but those lip wrinkles will be gone. Only 1 IU is used on each marionette line-this treatment can reduce the mouth line and help reduce the jowl.

Small amounts of Botulinum Toxin A can also be used on the bands on the neck below the chin. 1 or 2 IUs in each band will reduce the folds or bands on the neck.

Does the Injection Hurt?

I use a topical numbing cream which is very effective. I also use a cold Titanium Roller to cool the skin which is very effective at numbing the skin and which also helps prevent bruising. My patients often do not even feel the injection. If the patient has had a previous injection without these measures in a different office they are amazed at the difference.

What Does the Injection Cost?

Nationally these injections cost .00 per unit injected. If you are offered a discount or deal be sure to ask how many units you are getting. Some low priced offers are using diluted Botulinum Toxin A which will not be as effective for removing wrinkles.

What Can Go Wrong?

These injections are safe when done properly by an experienced and licensed physician who is an expert in facial anti-aging therapy. However there are potential side effects which can occur-some are unavoidable-some are related to injection technique.

Generally there is about a 2% incidence of side effects in my current experience although initial studies years ago were higher. The more common potential side effects are:

o Headache
o Flu like illness
o Nausea
o Temporary eyelid droop

Eyelid droop is caused if the agent is injected too low in the forehead near the eyelid, and does not occur with the typical forehead injection.

Where Should I Go to Learn about Botulinum Toxin A?

See an expert in facial rejuvenation therapy. In my opinion experts are board certified dermatologists and plastic surgeons that specialize in facial rejuvenation procedures.

Study your doctors website and ask questions-especially ask how many injections they have done and how many they do each week. Experience is very important in getting the best result and avoiding complications.

Don't go to Botox parties-I have seen some unhappy results on patients who have had Botulinum Toxin A injections in a non medical setting.

My opinion is that you want an expert who is board certified in Dermatology or plastic surgery who is an expert at what causes facial aging and wrinkles, knows all of the various techniques for correcting facial aging, and knows which treatment is best for your unique face.

There are many wrinkles and lines that definitely should not be treated with Botulinum Toxin A.

Botox - How to Remove Wrinkles With Botox

Cosmetic Surgery Gone Wrong

Surgery Went Horribly Wrong - Kenny Roger's Plastic Surgery

Cosmetic Surgery Gone Wrong

Yet another case of a cosmetic surgery going wrong, and this time the celebrity under fire was Country Music star Kenny Rogers and his plastic surgery. Apparently, Kenny Rogers had wanted to get the lines from around his eyes removed which appear naturally due to old age. He had become more conscious about his looks and wanted to be able to match up to the upcoming generation of young music stars. So, at the age of sixty seven, he decided to go in for plastic surgery. But as the case lay, the surgeons gave him something extra apart from the treatment which was to include a major face lift and an eye job. After the operation, he told a good many people that this was not the look that he desired. The skin around his eyes had become extremely tight and it even seemed, at least to some, that his face would just tear apart if some excess pressure was applied to it. Even though many people around him, even his new wife, liked the way he now looked, he just did not want that new face any more. He felt that it was the height of artificiality and wanted the damage repaired. So now has hired a highly qualified team of surgeons to repair the damage and undo what has been done. Kenny Rogers himself told a few reporters that the surgery was driving him to the limits of madness because of the tightness of the skin around his eye lids and that he would make sure that they were fixed. Kenny Rogers has been a sort of patron of cosmetic surgery all throughout his life, but after this failure he admits that he will perhaps not go in for anymore treatments.

Cosmetic Surgery Gone Wrong

Too many people, this Kenny Roger's plastic Surgery seemed a debacle straight from the beginning. After the eye jobs and facelift, it seemed that Kenny's fore head had become too flat and artificial, almost with a plastic feel. Even though he seemed much younger, it was not the same Kenny Rogers any more. His whole appearance seemed odd and did not suit him at all. After all there is a grace in being old and famous and if people are hell bent on trying to hide away all those years behind a fake mask of plastic, it is indeed disgraceful. Ultimately, Kenny Rogers lost a good number of fans. This was the same Kenny Rogers whose voice was a household name in the eighties. With his soulful lyrics about the Wild West, and the fast life, he could move many an audience. Kenny Rogers has performed with most of the famous singers and country music stars of his time and even of the modern generation, even if he seems to lag behind a little when it comes to pop music. It is a totally different matter that he has been married many times, but his duets with so many stars are still remembered fondly. He once had that hard and rustic looking face which resembled the life that he sang about in his songs, the rugged life of the west but now with his youthful and clean face, all that seems to have changed. But it is a known fact that Kenny Rogers was often teased by coworkers in his early years about his heavy frame and weight. So from the start, he cared a lot about his appearance. As a matter of fact, he used to work out also to control his weight.

Cosmetic Surgery Gone Wrong

Cosmetic Surgery Gone Wrong

Surgery Went Horribly Wrong - Kenny Roger's Plastic Surgery

Cosmetic Surgery Gone Wrong

Deadly Botox - More Than Just a Cosmetic Boost

Cosmetic Surgery Gone Wrong

Botox first hit the market 30 years ago when the eye care company Allergan boasted about its rejuvenating properties. Of course many of you will recall that Botox was derived from botulinum toxin A. This was once injected into eye muscles of people with crossed eyes. The science behind these injections was that the botulinum created a protein that would override muscle spasms and block nerve impulses that relaxed muscles on a temporary basis.

Cosmetic Surgery Gone Wrong

The Food and Drug Administration (FDA) took a liking to what it could do and gave it approval in 1978, however their original idea was to only use it for clinical applications. Turns out once plastic surgeons discovered its uses in cosmetic surgery, the Botox market took off exponentially. Due to the pressure of people demanding the Botox miracle, the FDA finally approved it for use in cosmetic surgery for getting rid of the fine lines between the eyes and around the mouth.

Cosmetic Surgery Gone Wrong

People were in wrinkle free heaven when they heard about this latest way to stay younger looking for longer periods of time. Botox cosmetic injections were an instant success and consumers were excited to think it had a low side effect ratio. Then the joy ride came to an abrupt halt when adverse incident reports were filed with the FDA.

Cosmetic Surgery Gone Wrong

Many of the reports focused on 'off label' uses not approved by the FDA and most frightening of all was the discovery that it migrated to other locations in the body and could be aspirated and cause pneumonia. Botox lawsuits started to surface all across the nation. Many lawyers with extensive experience in dangerous drug litigation got to see firsthand the side effects of Botox gone wrong, and they weren't pretty.

Over the years since the drug was first approved for use in cosmetic applications the occurrences of deadly side effects has risen dramatically. So much so that the FDA insisted that Allergan add a black box warning informing consumers of the risks of using Botox, including death. Nice idea, but it was never done. This is one of the facts that is referred to in dangerous drug litigation, that the company failed to adequately warn product users of the known risks of this drug.

Botox product litigation stories littered the media with more and more horror stories and accused the drug company of misleading the public. There were even references to clinical trials that were minimized despite the fact that 50% of the people involved suffered a bad reaction to Botox.

Botox is still in use and the produced risks are still present. Be very aware of what you are doing if you choose to submit to Botox injections. In cases that have gone to court across the U.S. there have been instances of long-term muscle paralysis, suffocation, Bell's Palsy, and permanent cornea damage.

If you feel you have been a victim of Botox injections, do the smart thing and contact a highly qualified dangerous drug attorney. Get your case assessed and find out how justice may be served in your case. Don't wait until you are sure you are dealing with a Botox side effect, as there is a statute of limitations in every state.

Deadly Botox - More Than Just a Cosmetic Boost

Cosmetic Surgery Gone Wrong

Common Mistakes When Planning Your Medical Spa

Cosmetic Surgery Gone Wrong

Everything starts with a business plan: If you don't have one. Write it. A good business plan will help you get a handle on all of the things that get glossed over in the excitement of starting a new business. It's also a usual requirement for getting financing.

Cosmetic Surgery Gone Wrong

Remember that this is a medical business and comes with special requirements. Non-physicians can not employ physicians, medical oversight, HIPPA compliance, and a host of other regulatory issues need to be addressed. Play fast and loose with these rules and you're asking for trouble. (One of our local competitors in Utah was not providing adequate physician oversight. The state walked in one day, confiscated all of their technology and patient records and closed them down.) All lenders want to know how you're going to handle these issues. ADVERTISEMENT

Cosmetic Surgery Gone Wrong

Financing is easy. Financing smart is hard: Speak the words "medical spa" as a physician and you're everyone's best friend. Banks, lenders, technology companies will all have big smiles on their faces and papers in their hands, ready to lend money or finance everything you need. If you're not a physician it's going to be harder.

Cosmetic Surgery Gone Wrong

If you need money or a line of credit for needs other than technology, a bank will probably be your first stop. Banks will provide the best rates but are the most rigorous in investigating borrowers and have the least tolerance for risk. Banks will require that you have spotless credit and that the entire loan is secured. In most cases, everyone who owns 10% or more of the business will be personally responsible for the loan and have to provide two or more years of tax returns. Be prepared for a blizzard of paperwork. Banks will want to see financial statements, cash flow, a business plan (although they don't read it), and have a little visit.

The bank is going to want to know what the funds are intended to be used for. They want to see tangible assets that have a market and can be sold if the business fails or you can't make the payments. They don't want to hear that you need more money for marketing and advertising or salaries that don't have any resale value.

The money that banks will lend you will take the form of a loan, or a line of credit. Loans have a set schedule and payments. A line of credit is somewhat different. The idea is that the bank extends a line of credit that you may draw on. Interest is paid only on the amount of money that is used. However, banks usually require that the entire balance is paid off and unused for one month every year to ensure that the business is liquid. If you can't meet this requirement, the entire line reverts to a loan.

Some bankers are helpful and some are not. In one instance a branch manager told one of our accountants that wanted some information that "he didn't need our business and we could just live with that". Avoid these types if you can. A friendly banker can go a long way in securing loans and providing a little flexibility if things don't go exactly as you planned. If you find a great banker, send him a Christmas card and some cookies once in a while.

If you are in the fringe of what a bank can tolerate risk wise, they will often suggest or apply on your behalf for an SBA (Small Business Administration) loan that's partially guaranteed by the government. (sba.gov/financing)

Half of something is better than all of nothing: If you're going to need more money than you have in assets, you still have a couple of options. These involve partnerships, joint-ventures, venture loans or equity.

Most start-ups involve some form of equity trade. Partnerships are a good example. Sweat equity in the early stages provides ownership in lieu of payment or salary. It's very common for entrepreneurs to take little or no money, sometimes for years, until the business is on its legs. Sweat equity at this stage usually extends only to the founders but may extend to badly needed partners. When we started Surface, I took more than an 80% reduction in income.

Equity: The simple rule is; the more money you need and risk you entail, the more equity you're going to give up.

Angels: This is the first stop for most entrepreneurs. Angel financing (also called seed money), is usually raised from friends and family or "high net-worth" individuals. In some cases you may find "Angel Groups" that meet together and look for investments. Angels are usually found a the early stages of a business and are often bought out when larger investors come in.

Venture Debt: A recent surge in venture debt has made its way into the market and is worth discussing. Venture debt is basically a venture loan. The lender charges a higher interest rate than banks are allowed to (often around 14%) and accepts more risk in return. In addition, you will have to give up a small percentage of your company in what are called warrants. This small percentage (usually less than 5%) allows the lender to share in any potential upside. Venture debt is worth considering if you're sure of success and you don't want or need to give up a large equity position in you company. But you'll still be personally responsible.

Venture Capital: When most people think of raising large amounts of money, they're thinking of venture capital. For most start ups, venture capital is not an option. VC money has some downsides though. It is hard to get and extremely expensive. When you add up the entire enchilada, you're looking at about 80% compounding interest each year in return for that money. VC's are looking for an investment term of three to five years and a ROI (return on investment) of 700% or more. Whew. You're also going to loose complete control of your company and have someone constantly looking over your shoulder. There are cases where this actually makes sense. Many VC are extremely well connected and bring these resources to the table.

So, now you've got the money you need. What are you going to do with it?

Most medical spas have grown out of an existing physician practice. The idea of having technicians producing revenue, low additional overhead, increased patient flow, and the feel that "I could do that" is attractive to a large number of doctors who are tired of the grind of medicine. (We've been approached by a surprising diversity of physicians looking to enter this market including; anesthesiologists, cardio-thoracic surgeons, and even podiatrists.)

Multiple Locations: After some initial success, many physicians and MedSpa owners attempt to open additional locations. (For some reason, these second-clinic startups are often opened by a relative, usually a wife or daughter.) These second locations never achieve the success of the first clinic for a very simple reason; their a completely different animal. If you're thinking of opening multiple locations you're work load just tripled. Multiple location sites are outside the abilities of most physicians and involve a much greater financial risk. Staffing and human resources, legal issues, medical oversight... most fail within the first year.

Successful multi-location practices are built around systems. If your first clinic doesn't run without you there, you're not ready for a second. Expanding to fast is a sure why to overextend your resources. Then you're in big trouble. If you've closed a second clinic, lenders are going to be very wary of lending you money.

The Turn Key Solution: Franchises and consultants love to drop this phrase. The idea is an attractive one. Experts will guide your steps to financial glory. Marketing, financing, training, everything will be delivered in a nice little box with a bow on top. But, knowing a number of franchise owners and the problems they've encountered, I would give this advice; beware.

The current crop of franchises have a lot of problems. (One of them in California was shut down for selling medical practices to non-physicians. They've since reopened and are among the most aggressive advertisers.) Franchises are attractive because they claim to have all the answers. If you'll just write the checks all of your troubles will be over. Not so fast. What you'll really get are some manuals, pre-written scripts for sales, and bad ad-slicks. You'll also get: locked into specific technologies that might be second-tier (the franchise gets kick-backs), spend money you could use elsewhere, and pay royalties on all of your income. (The franchises that offer a flat fee are an even worse idea. They have absolutely no motivation to help you.)

Big dogs eat little dogs. The next five years will see dramatic and disruptive changes in this marketplace. Large, well-financed medical businesses with smart physicians and high-quality care are going to open up next door to you. (You're the corner store, they're Wal-Mart) These businesses will be category killers and if you're not well established with a broad market presence and multiple revenue streams, you'll be gone.

The ,000 towel dryers. Choosing the right technology is one of the things that will let you move ahead a step, or put you in cement boots where you stand. I always think of the way one physician described the pair of IPLs [Intense Pulsed Light devices] that he'd bought; as ,000 towel dryers. Before you decide on which system to buy you're going to need to crunch the numbers. How many shots will the IPL heads last for until they need to be rebuilt? How much support is included? What kind of training is provided? Does the device work better than its competitors? Before you sign your next few house payments away, make sure of your technology decisions.

Buy or lease. Leasing is the best way to go if you want to pay for your equipment as you use it while preserving your capital. Many of the technology companies have delayed payment plans as long as six months. Buying used equipment is often the best way to save money if cash flow is not an issue. (We purchase used medical lasers and IPLs online from a broker we trust and sometimes negotiate with our buying power for other physicians.) You can often save up to 40% off the price of a new machine if you have the cash on hand.

Don't guild the lily: Cash flow is a problem many start-up medical spas face. Revenues and growth projections are commonly exaggerated in the excitement of a new business. Before you invest in embroidered leather treatment tables, make sure you can pay your bills. One medical spa startup spent 0,000 on build out and didn't have any money left to attract patients. They were out of business in four months.

A few simple finance rules:

o The Golden Rule is actually translated as: He with the gold makes the rules.

o You will end up being personally responsible for the money: Physicians sometimes think that they can use equity in their medical practice or future earnings as security. Nope.

o Be frugal: Take only the amount of money you need. It's tempting to take as much money as you can get. Don't. All the money you take will come with strings attached.

o Take enough money: Lenders hate it when you need additional money. They worry something's going wrong in the original plan.

o Sometimes you can't get there from here: Competition is fierce. If your market is already "owned" by a competitor, think carefully before going into debt to compete in a market you can't win.

Tighten your belt: Financing is like anything else. In order to really find the best solutions you're going to need to do some research. Find a mentor, someone who's done it before and knows what to avoid. And remember, the most common reason that businesses fail is not lack of capital, its poor decision making.

Resource links for all of the businesses and information discussed in this article are available online at MedicalSpaMD.com

Common Mistakes When Planning Your Medical Spa

Cosmetic Surgery Gone Wrong

Bad Plastic Surgery

Cosmetic Surgery Gone Wrong

Plastic surgery is generally performed for either aesthetics or restorative surgery purpose. It deals with altering or rejuvenating the facial and bodily features that have been damaged in accident or because of some congenital defect. It could also be performed to alter facial features that the individuals are not comfortable with. A plastic surgery that has gone awry is known as a bad plastic surgery.

Cosmetic Surgery Gone Wrong

This is typically due to errors in the surgical procedures. It could also result because of wrong choices by either the patient or surgeon before the procedure. It is very easy to identify bad facial surgery, as it is visible and obvious. In case of facelifts that have become tight, it is apparent in the form of asymmetrical and tight appearance of face muscles. As a result of bad plastic surgery of the face, patients at times lose the mobility of facial features and it also hampers the sensation due to damaged nerves.

Cosmetic Surgery Gone Wrong

It is possible to make amends in a bad surgery by re-working the problem with another corrective surgery. However, serious problems as the case of a bad rhinoplasty are almost impossible to amend. It is important to note that repair job can only be done if there is enough tissue left for it. It is easier to camouflage plastic surgery that has gone bad in other unexposed parts of the body rather than the face.

Cosmetic Surgery Gone Wrong

Some of the effects of surgery gone askew are excessive scarring, deformation and in severe cases paralysis. Bad surgeries cause a lot of emotional and psychological damage to the patients. They enter into a guilt complex and feel that it was deserved, and a reprisal for their vanity of going for the surgery.

It is advisable to check the background of the surgeon before the surgery commitment is agreed upon. It is important to know the number of cases that have been performed before by the surgeon in a similar vein before placing trust on the practitioner.

Bad Plastic Surgery

Cosmetic Surgery Gone Wrong

Penis Enlargement Surgery - The Article They Don't Want You to Read

Cosmetic Surgery Gone Wrong

Does the risk of surgery seem far fetched? Well its not, penis enlargement surgery is not even close to being perfected yet. When compared to many other types of surgery PE surgery is considered high risk.

Cosmetic Surgery Gone Wrong

Try typing 'penis augmentation gone wrong' or 'botched penis surgery' into Google and watch how many results come in! These are real life horror stories of angry men who felt they were butchered, surgeons facing lawsuits, one guy want as far as to send a bomb out in the mail to kill his surgeon because he was so disappointed with how his surgery went!!!

Cosmetic Surgery Gone Wrong

Fact! Thousands of failed penis augmentation reports exist, doctors and surgeons like to downplay the risk involved with penis augmentation so they can get you to empty your bank account. Lets lay out the real facts about what can happen in a botched penis augmentation:

Cosmetic Surgery Gone Wrong

Permanent Impotence Deformation of the Penis Lose Ability To Ejaculate Loss of Penis Sensitivity Ghost Pains Lose your Desire to Have Sex Lowered Blood Circulation Ugly Scarring

No man should be willing to spend thousands of dollars on a surgery that is purely cosmetic and has those types of risks. A mans penis size is something he should be proud of but it isn't worth the risks of surgery. It seems like logical reasoning that scalpel + penis don't mix!

You are highly encouraged to learn about real, effective, permanent, natural alternatives to penis enlargement surgery. If you were considering augmentation, get that idea out of your head immediately!

Penis Enlargement Surgery - The Article They Don't Want You to Read

Cosmetic Surgery Gone Wrong

The Paradox of Female Beauty - Part 2

Cosmetic Surgery Gone Wrong

Continuing last week's debate, this article will seek to explore whether human reproduction is a product of evolution and what relationship that may have to cosmetic surgery procedures undergone by men and women. Basically, in this article I will consider the evidence in three phases:

Cosmetic Surgery Gone Wrong

· What is our evolutionary heritage from our primate ancestors, as deduced from our nearest primate relatives?

Cosmetic Surgery Gone Wrong

· What major evolutionary events separate us from our nearest primate relatives?

Cosmetic Surgery Gone Wrong

· How might we expect these evolutionary events to transform our pattern of reproduction and is that reflected in cosmetic surgery practices?

Sex Among the Primates

There is no uniform code of sexual conduct among our nearest primate relatives. Gorillas, chimpanzees, and bonobos all "do it" differently.

Gorillas are less closely related than the other two, but they provide an instructive contrast. Male gorillas maintain a harem, with a small group of tightly controlled females engaging sexually with a single dominant male. Competition among males for dominance is fierce, but generally final with males and their harems living isolated from other families. The consequence of this is that male gorillas have large, muscular bodies, while female gorillas are significantly smaller and with little sign of reproductive receptivity.

Chimpanzees and bonobos have similar but distinct reproductive patterns. In both species, females display receptiveness to reproduction with swelling of the genitals. Also in both species, females are generally promiscuous, although chimpanzees are more likely to have females who pair bond, although for short periods of time.

The Human Touch

Humans are distinctly different from our primate ancestors, from whom we are separated by three major evolutionary changes:

· Bipedalism

· Larger brains

· General hairlessness

How might these three changes have affected human reproductive patterns?

Bipedalism is the earliest evolutionary change that separates humans from other primates, occurring between five and six million years ago as the Australopithecines diverged from chimp and bonobo ancestors. Bipedalism could be expected to create many shifts in sexual selection. First, the presence of large, muscular buttocks, an inherent side effect of our walking stance, might have been read by ancestors accustomed to swellings that signaled reproductive receptiveness, as a sign of continual receptiveness.

This effect would have been most pronounced among our early ancestors who would have changed between a bipedal and quadrupedal stance, both increasing muscle mass while keeping the head down where the signal would be read.

This pattern being established during the transition, the signal would be missed once our ancestors became fully bipedal, having less visual contact with the signal, thus leading to a desire, i.e. a sexual selection pressure in favor of some comparable signal more fully visible while standing. Enter the unusually large human female breasts. How unusually large? Consider this comparison among our closest primate relatives.

Source: Sexual Paradox by Christine Fielder and Chris King.

Note also the relatively large penis of the human male, which would also be selected for following bipedalism, which makes the penis highly visible. Once men stood upright sexual selection by females for a larger penis might be expected, although the role of the larger penis is probably related more to display in male-male dominance battles than sexuality.

We can also expect that bipedalism would promote signals from the facial area, leading to more selectivity with respect to facial structure and expressiveness.

Larger brain size seems to have been both a driver and a response to tool use among our early ancestors, which accelerated rapidly over other primates once our ancestors found themselves with free hands.

The larger brain size had an adverse side effect on human birth, already strained by the changes in the pelvic region caused by bipedalism. In order to counter the difficulties of passing the large-brained child through the vaginal opening past the pelvis, human females who had their children at a slightly earlier stage in fetal development would have had a higher survival rate, eventually leading to the current situation where humans give birth to a child whose brain is only 29% of adult size, compared with chimpanzees, who give birth to children whose brains are nearly 50% that of adult size.

The cost of early birth? Human children are more helpless at birth than any other animal, including marsupials. Anyone who has had a child knows what this means: months, even years of dedicated care. How could a woman possibly be expected to care for a child while leading the far-ranging life our ancestors must have led to spread by foot to every corner of the globe? She would need help. She might receive this help from other women, but our closest primate relatives jealously guard their offspring from the hands of other females, so this seems an unlikely source of aid for early humans. Where then might a woman seek help in caring for their child? In their mate.

Human males put a lot of resources into the rearing of their children, not only in terms of food and shelter, but time investment. But in order for a woman to be able to count on the man's investment, the woman and the man must be bound tightly by bonds that are likely to last the five or six years necessary for a human child to be old enough to walk and socialize with a peer group for protection.

To foster this bond, humans developed a complex set of mating rituals for displaying pre-sex and post-sex emotional fondness. All cultures share this. Most of these rituals involve face-to-face communication, both verbally and nonverbally through looks and through kissing, and the touching of bare skin. Skin-to-skin contact became the medium through which humans began to develop what we now call "erotic love." As an essential component of receptivity to erotic love, bare skin became a desirable quality in both males and females, creating a feedback loop of sexual selection, leading to the almost total loss of hair by members of both sexes.

Cosmetic Fallout

If this account of sexual selection in human evolution is true, we would expect that many people to try and present false indicators of a positive genetic heritage: i.e. they would want to look more beautiful in ways that had been sexually selected for during our evolutionary history. In other words, we would expect cosmetic surgery practices to center around three loci:

1) The chest area to distinguish male and female sexual dimorphism;

2) The face to enhance signals of health

3) Hairlessness and healthy skin.

Let's see if that's the case.

According to statistics from the American Society of Plastic Surgeons (ASPS), of the surgical procedures directed at a specific body region other than the face, 72% were directed at the chest area, led by breast augmentation and breast lifts for women and breast reduction in men. Over 58% of all cosmetic treatments were directed at the facial area, including blepharoplasty, facelifts, rhinoplasty, and a host of facial injections, especially Botox cosmetic. Furthermore, the majority of other treatments are dedicated to managing hair and giving skin a healthy, youthful appearance through microdermabrasion, laser skin resurfacing, laser hair removal, and sclerotherapy.

So it seems that evolution has in fact affected human sexuality, which means that we are left with the mystery of why it is the females of our species and not the males who are so dedicated to ornamentation. Although one might argue that men invest heavily in children, the incredible toll that childbirth takes on a woman means that women invest still more, so why, then would women be so much more ornamented than men? We will investigate this question further in the next installment.

The Paradox of Female Beauty - Part 2

Cosmetic Surgery Gone Wrong